Clinical Information

Arsenic (As), lead, cadmium, and mercury are well-known toxins, and toxic exposures are characterized by increased urinary excretion of these metals.

Arsenic is a naturally occurring element that is usually found in the environment combined with other elements, such as oxygen, chlorine, and sulfur. Arsenic combined with these elements is called inorganic arsenic. Arsenic combined with carbon and hydrogen is referred to as organic arsenic. The organic forms (eg, arsenobetaine and arsenocholine) are relatively nontoxic, while the inorganic forms are toxic. The toxic inorganic forms are arsenite (As[3+]/As[III]) and arsenate (As[5+]/As[V]). Inorganic As(V) is readily reduced to inorganic As(III), which is then primarily broken down to the less toxic methylated metabolites, monomethylarsonic acid, and subsequently dimethylarsinic acid.

People are exposed to arsenic by eating food, drinking water, or breathing air. Of these, food is usually the largest source of arsenic. The predominant dietary source of arsenic is seafood, followed by rice/rice cereal, mushrooms, and poultry. While seafood contains the greatest amounts of arsenic, from fish and shellfish, this is mostly in an organic form of arsenic called arsenobetaine, which is much less harmful. Some seaweed may contain arsenic in the inorganic form, which is more toxic. In the United States, some areas also contain high natural levels of arsenic in rock, which can lead to elevated levels in the soil and drinking water. Occupational (eg, copper or lead smelting, wood treating, or pesticide application) exposure is another source where people may be introduced to elevated levels of arsenic. Lastly, hazardous waste sites may contain large quantities of arsenic and, if not disposed of properly, may get into the surrounding water, air, or soil.

A wide range of signs and symptoms may be seen in acute arsenic poisoning, including headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hypotension, fever, hemolysis, seizures, and mental status changes. Symptoms of chronic poisoning, also called arseniasis, are mostly insidious and nonspecific. The gastrointestinal tract, skin, and central nervous system are usually involved. Nausea, epigastric pain, colic abdominal pain, diarrhea, and paresthesias of the hands and feet can also occur.

Since arsenic is excreted predominantly by glomerular filtration, measurement of arsenic in urine is the most reliable means of detecting arsenic exposures within the last several days.

Lead toxicity primarily affects the gastrointestinal, neurologic, and hematopoietic systems.

Chronic exposure to cadmium causes accumulated kidney damage.

The correlation between the levels of mercury excretion in the urine and the clinical symptoms is considered poor.